Mill And Kants Theories Essays (3238 words) - Kantianism

Mill And Kant's Theories Get Essays - Essay Search - Submit Essays - Request Essays - Essay Links - FAQ Compare Mill and Kant's ethical theories; which makes a better societal order? John Stuart Mill (1808-73) believed in an ethical theory known as utilitarianism. There are many formulation of this theory. One such is, Everyone should act in such a way to bring the largest possibly balance of good over evil for everyone involved. However, good is a relative term. What is good? Utilitarians disagreed on this subject. Mill made a distinction between happiness and sheer sensual pleasure. He defines happiness in terms of higher order pleasure (i.e. social enjoyments, intellectual). In his Utilitarianism (1861), Mill described this principle as follows:According to the Greatest Happiness Principle ? The ultimate end, end, with reference to and for the sake of which all other things are desirable (whether we are considering our own good or that of other people), is an existence exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible enjoyments.Therefore, based on this statement, three i deas may be identified: (1) The goodness of an act may be determined by the consequences of that act. (2) Consequences are determined by the amount of happiness or unhappiness caused. (3) A good man is one who considers the other man's pleasure (or pain) as equally as his own. Each person's happiness is equally important.Mill believed that a free act is not an undetermined act. It is determined by the unconstrained choice of the person performing the act. Either external or internal forces compel an unfree act. Mill also determined that every situation depends on how you address the situation and that you are only responsible for your feelings and actions. You decide how you feel about what you think you saw.Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) had an interesting ethical system. It is based on a belief that the reason is the final authority for morality. Actions of any sort, he believed, must be undertaken from a sense of duty dictated by reason, and no action performed for expediency or solel y in obedience to law or custom can be regarded as moral. A moral act is an act done for the right reasons. Kant would argue that to make a promise for the wrong reason is not moral - you might as well not make the promise. You must have a duty code inside of you or it will not come through in your actions otherwise. Our reasoning ability will always allow us to know what our duty is.Kant described two types of common commands given by reason: the hypothetical imperative, which dictates a given course of action to reach a specific end; and the categorical imperative, which dictates a course of action that must be followed because of its rightness and necessity. The categorical imperative is the basis of morality and was stated by Kant in these words: Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will and general natural law. Therefore, before proceeding to act, you must decide what rule you would be following if you were to act, whether you are willing for that rule to be followed by everyone all over. If you are willing to universalize the act, it must be moral; if you are not, then the act is morally impermissible. Kant believed that the welfare of each individual should properly be regarded as an end in itself, as stated in the Formula of the End in Itself:Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.Kant believes that moral rules are exceptionless. Therefore, it is wrong to kill in all situations, even those of self-defense. This is belief comes from the Universal Law theory. Since we would never want murder to become a universal law, then it must be not moral in all situations.So which of the two theories would make a better societal order? That is a difficult question because both theories have problems. For Kant it is described above, his rules are absolute. Killing could

Growth of Austin, TX essays

Growth of Austin, TX essays Throughout the past 20 years, the city population of Austin has nearly doubled causing an increasing demand in the needs of its residents. Due to incredible growth rate that this city endures, it is important to realize the horrific effects that can occur when a population reaches its ultimate peak. The way of living has already been threatened and may meet its untimely death in the near future if action is not taken immediately. Like the various other highly growing cities in America, Austin is seeing the expected effects of its growth. Of these are the increased numbers in crimes committed and reported throughout the city. Situations such as this are reminiscent of other larger Texas cities such as Houston and Dallas. Thanks to the urban growth in Houston, it is now recognized as one of the leading crime related cities in the country. The crimes that will be more often seen in Austin are theft, assault, and murder. No one wants to see these numbers rise in anyway. Austins beauty and uniqueness cant save it from the rising criminal action and drug traffic that would take place if the city grew too large. One reason why Austin is growing so rapidly is the availability of high-tech jobs and the diversity of cultures this city consumes. This presents itself as a highly desired place to work and live. But even the vast number of jobs cannot protect its inhabitants from unexpected hazards. The beginning of 2000 started off poorly for the city of Austin and even more poorly for the Dell Computer Company. Due to the fear of computer related failure of Y2K issues and earthquakes in foreign manufacturing countries that destroyed numerous of quantities of highly demanded hardware, the Dell Company was forced to lay off between 1000 2000 employees to compensate for their losses. This and the layoff of employees from other computer companies resulted in an increase of unemployment for Austin. When a sligh...

International Finance Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Finance - Case Study Example One of the ways through which persistently weak currencies can be stabilized is by use of the preexisting currency. This implies that the government can employ microeconomic policies in order to ensure that the currency regains its value. For example, central banks should ensure that money supply is closely monitored to avoid inflation. Other instruments that can be used to regulate money supply include open market operations, discount rate and reserve requirements among others. Most importantly, the interest rates should be controlled to ensure that the public do not excessively borrow an aspect that can result to increase of the money in circulation and inflation. Another way of solving the problem of persistent currency is introducing a new currency. This implies that the central banks should hire experienced economic analysts in order to study the implication of generating new currency. It is vital to note that due to dire causes of making new uncontrolled currencies including hy perinflation, it is essential that government should first use all the available microeconomic policies before embarking on introducing a new currency. Vietnamese Dong among other weaker currencies can also be stabilized by borrowing foreign currencies (Ellen, 2012). Most of the countries with weak currencies usually borrow US dollars in order to ensure that the value of their currencies is maintained at an appropriate rate. While all the three ways are important, the best approach that a government can use depends on political situation. Most importantly, the three approaches should be able create a domestic market, increase reserves and strengthen the existing institutions. By importing or exporting to a foreign country such as Thailand, Blades is able to benefit in various ways. First, the company is able to import the products that it is facing difficulties in producing. Based on the high costs of production that Blades is facing in the US market,

The Importance of Online Advertising to Hospitality and Tourism Research Proposal

The Importance of Online Advertising to Hospitality and Tourism - Research Proposal Example In what ways has the internet changed the hospitality industry? 2. What does a consumer find when they search for information regarding their travel needs? 3. What are the methods used for the hospitality industry to connect with consumers? 4. What methods used by the hospitality industry might be considered unethical when dealing with consumers searching the internet? 5. What disadvantages can be found for the consumer as they use the internet as a means to book their travel? 6. What are the advantages of the internet as a consumer looks to book travel? By using these questions to frame the inquiry, this research project will be able to focus on the internet as a source of advertising for the hospitality industry and the effect that it has had on consumer travel practices. 1.3 Theoretical Foundation The study that is being proposed is a quantitative study that is based upon a survey instrument. Quantitative study often begins by wanting to test a conceptual model of the question. Th eory allows for predictions on which phenomena will manifest (Polit and Beck 2008, p. 57). This study predicts that the outcome to the study will suggest that internet marketing is an important part of hospitality industry advertising and that consumers have changed their travel practices as a result. The following hypotheses will frame the inquiry that is intended for this paper: Hypothesis 1: The internet has changed the way in which the hospitality industry markets to consumers. Alternative Hypothesis 1: The internet has had no effect on the way in which the hospitality industry markets to consumers. Hypothesis 2: Internet advertising has changed the way in which consumers plan for holidays and travel.... This "The Importance of Online Advertising to Hospitality and Tourism" essay describes the benefits which the Internet brought into the sphere of hospitality's advertisement. The hospitality industry, like most industries, has been impacted by the tools that the internet provides for advertising. Online capacities for the hospitality industry do not only include advertising, but the potential for transactions making travel a more accessible experience. Advertising is highly competitive on the internet with someone always coming up with new ways to attract the attention of an audience that is deluged with information all coming at them at once. The hospitality industry benefits from everything from data mining techniques to websites providing specific information. Without a web based presence it is unlikely that a hospitality industry entity would have success in this globalised and interconnected world. The research questions that have been defined for this study discuss the various stakeholders in the hospitality industry and the impact that the internet advertising potentials have had on travel. The first question asks about the changes that have been made in relationship to the hospitality industry through internet advertising and will be answered through statistical inquiry as well as anecdotal information on the topic. Secondary research will provide answers as to how the hospitality industry is currently using the internet for expanding their opportunities with consumers.

The Case for Starbucks and The Body Shop Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Case for Starbucks and The Body Shop - Essay Example This brings the total locations to 12,440 worldwide. The number of weekly customers is 30 million. Starbucks’s success elucidates the fact that making a global brand is one sure way for the firm to survive and grow. The Roddicks' first Body Shop opened on March 26, 1976, in Brighton, the United Kingdom with only about 25 natural handmade products. The rights to the name of the firm were bought from a San Francisco beauty store which still remains today as The Body Time. Since then, the product portfolio has expanded to more than 600 skin and hair care solutions ranging from cosmetics, accessories, bath & body products, fragrances, hair care, products for men, and even an aromatherapy range -all containing only natural ingredients. Realizing that there is a great potential for their product in markets abroad, Roddick embarked on an aggressive semi-environmentalist campaign abroad. The Body Shop experienced rapid growth, expanding at a rate of 50 percent annually. Its stock was floated on London's Unlisted Securities Market in April 1984, opening at 95 pence. In January 1986, when it obtained a full listing on the London Stock Exchange, the stock was selling at 820 pence. By 1991 the company's market value stood at  £350 million. There are more than 1,900 outlets of The Body Shop today located in 500 countries such as Canada, Malaysia, New Zealand, Denmark, France, and Germany to name a few. The company may have continued expanding under the leadership of Roddick if it wasn’t bought by L’oreal.

Analysing The World Intellectual Property Organization Economics Essay

Analysing The World Intellectual Property Organization Economics Essay According to the  definition  of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), intellectual property now applies to creations of mind or invention; literary and artistic works; and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Legally, intellectual property includes patents, trade secrets, trademarks, and copyright. Scholars prefer an even broader view of intellectual property.   They prefer a definition that includes individual creativity and socially adopted innovations, as well as collective knowledge (Gollin, 2007). Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal entitlements granted by governments within their respective sovereignties that provide patent, trademark, and copyright owners the exclusive right to exploit their intellectual property (IP) for a certain period. Defined another way, IPR, broadly, are rights granted to people who create and own works that are the result of human intellectual creativity. The  main  intellectual property rights are copyright, patents, trade marks, design rights, protection from passing off, and the protection of confidential information. IP is normally classified into two categories namely industrial property and copyright. Industrial property includes inventions (patents), industrial designs and trademarks and copyright comprises of musical works, literary works like novels and poems and artistic works like photography, paintings and sculptures for instance. The basic rationale for IPR protection is to provide an incentive for innovation by granting IP owners an opportunity to recover their costs of research and development (NERA Economic Consulting). COPYRIGHT As pointed out above, IP can be divided into two categories namely industrial property and copyright. Copyright assures legal protection for literary works (for example poems, books and film scripts), musical works, artistic works (such as paintings and sculptures), photography, computer software and cinematographic works. Copyright law is meant to protect authors by giving them special rights to commercialize copies of their work in whatever material form (printed publication, audio recording, film, broadcast and so on) is being used to communicate their creative expressions to the public. Even though registration is not normally necessary, it is prudent for authors to have their name put on the work. Nonetheless, legal protection includes the expression of the ideas contained, not the ideas themselves. Copyright offers owners exclusive rights, usually for the length of the authors life plus 50 years. As for audio recordings, copyright is usually bestowed for 50 years and is accessi ble to the author or company in charge for creating the recording. Authorization is probable to involve payment of royalties. These are known as moral rights and stay with the author even if the latter transfers the copyright to somebody else. Economic rights allow the rights owner to obtain financial compensation from the exploitation of his/her works by others. Copyright owners are granted rental rights in order to receive royalties for commercial rental of their works. INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY Industrial property is clearly specified in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Article 1 (3)): Industrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain, tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour. Industrial property takes a wide array of forms. These consist of patents to protect inventions and industrial designs, which are visual creations establishing the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also includes trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against unfair competition. In some of these, the aspect of intellectual creation, although existent, is less clearly defined. What matters here is that the obj ect of industrial property typically consists of signs conveying information, particularly to consumers, as regards products and services offered on the market. Protection is intended against unauthorized use of such signs likely to deceive consumers, and against deceptive practices in general. Trademarks A trademark is a sign which helps in making the distinction of the goods or services of one company from those of another. Such signs may use words, letters, numerals, pictures, shapes and colors, as well as any combination of the above. It usually consists of a distinctive design, word, or phrases, generally placed on the product label and sometimes demonstrated in advertisements. For example, LOreal is a trademark that can only be employed on products produced by the LOreal Company. A lot of countries are now allowing for the registration of less conventional forms of trademark, such as three-dimensional signs (like the Fanta bottle or Toblerone chocolate bar), audible signs (sounds, such as the roar of the lion that precedes films produced by MGM), or olfactory signs (smells, such as perfumes). But many countries have laid down perimeters as to what may be registered as a trademark, generally consenting to only signs that are visually perceptible or can be represented graphically. When utilized in association with the marketing of the goods, the sign may appear in advertisements, for example in newspapers or on television, or in the windows of the shops in which the goods are sold. Trademarks facilitate the choice to be made by the consumer when buying certain products or using certain services. The trademark helps the consumer to identify a product or service which was already familiar to him or which was advertised. The owner of a registered trademark has an exclusive right as far as his mark is concerned. It gives him the right to use the mark and to prevent unauthorized use of it. Patents Legal action can be undertaken against those who violate the patent by copying the invention or selling it without authorization from the patent owner. Patents can be bought, sold, hired, or licensed. When doing a patent application, some criteria need to be satisfied. The patent examiners should be convinced that the invention is Several types of patent may be granted (Lesser 1991, p. 14): Uses: covers a precise use only. Hence, it would cover the above drug uniquely as a cure for cancer and not for any uses that are later discovered. Products-by-process: consists of only products manufactured by the process described in the application. Therefore, it would cover the drug, but only when manufactured by a particular process. It must be noted that not all inventions that satisfy the above conditions can seek protection by patent. In many countries, medicines and genetically modified organisms cannot be patented at all. There are variations in national patent laws because each country has its own preferences when it comes to defining what inventions may be patented and these laws normally conform to the countrys perceived national interest. HISTORY OF IPR Since the first intellectual property system came into existence in the West, humanity has gone through nearly four hundred years. In the nearly four hundred years of history, intellectual property rights have completed their conversion from feudal power to peoples private rights. Today, it is irrefutable that the revolution brought by IPR has not only broadened the conventional content of property rights system, but also led the intellectual property system to become the worlds most significant property rights system, and also made a deep impact on mankind in the 21st century. However, the emergence of this new system is not a straightforward process. With the advent of new technologies and human cognitive aptitude, as an implement to balance the private rights and public interests, the intellectual property system has always stumbled upon challenges and disagreements. The IP system was first introduced in the west and was later established throughout the world. For the IPR system, Patent law is the first system to be introduced in the world. The coming out of the patent system gave birth to human intellectual property system. The United States even established the principle of protection of proprietary technology in the Constitution, made patent protection to the height to constitutional level. The history of copyrights has some strong monarchical power background. Before the beginning of the copyright system, many countries have had long-standing system of printing privileges. According to this franchise system, the king can grant a printed right to license the printer rather than the copyright owners. In 1709, Britain built the first modern copyright law the Queen Anne Act. Following this, the United Kingdom, France and Germany set up the copyright system respectively. Under the influence of these countries as a pioneer, the copyright system has been gradually acknowledged by Governments. Trademarks originated in Spain. The trademark system in the modern sense started in the 19th century. In 1857, France established the first legal system in the world to protect trademarks. Consequently, the trademark system rapidly grew in other parts of the world. Many countries accepted and implemented a variety of forms of intellectual property rights in different approach and evolution. At the same time, new types of intellectual property rights have continued to be progressively incorporated into the system of intellectual property rights. All these developments reveal that the historical development of the intellectual property system has gone through a stage of steady development. By the end of the eighties, the new trend of civil legislation began to emerge. Many countries tried to develop the Code of intellectual property or incorporate intellectual property law into the Civil Code. These activities started out a wave of codification of intellectual property rights. Since the late 19th century onwards, along with the new technological development and the extension of international trade, intellectual property transactions in the international arena have also started with the formation and development. At the same time, there was a big contradiction between international demand for intellectual property rights and regional constraints. In order to find a solution to this contradiction, some countries have signed the International Convention for the protection of intellectual property, and established a number of global or regional international organizations. A system of international protection of intellectual property rights was set up in the world. The convention of Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property(set up by France, Germany, Belgium, and 10 other countries and launched in 1883) is the first international convention in protecting IP. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Art is the first international convention about copyright. The establishment of International Conventions specified that the intellectual property system had reached the international stage. Among them, approved under the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1993, Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement(TRIPS) succeeded to come to conclusion between developed country and developing country, which amplified the national standards of protection of intellectual property rights to a unified higher platform. More about these regulatory bodies and agreements will be discussed afterwards. In this new century, intellectual property rights system is facing new challenges. The adverse effects of intellectual property system are appearing slowly. In some developing countries, the protection of IPR has brought about the exorbitant cost of some medicines and other necessities; the price of some products with IPR is so high that it cannot meet the needs of people in difficulty. To solve these problems, developed countries have begun a new set of amendments to the legislative activities of the intellectual property system. New laws and regulations continue to be adopted, and the scope of intellectual propertys objects has continued to grow. In spite of this, the concern for IPR system has become an appealing trend. Developed countries take its monopoly of advanced scientific knowledge as an alluring weapon for technology leadership. Developing countries take the absorbing and creating knowledge as an important way to catch up with developed countries. It can be anticipated, that the next era is not only to develop and possess social substantial resources, but also to develop and possess mortal knowledge resources. Moreover, with the expansion of global economic integration, the international process of intellectual property system will definitely speed up. Protection of intellectual property rights has not only become the compulsory conditions of a country to promote economic development, but also it is considered a prerequisite so as to maintain international competitiveness. IPR IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES As a social system stimulating innovation, the intellectual property system has been established in the Western countries at first, and has later spread in the world. Walking along with its historical development, the course of intellectual property system in Western countries has gone through three main stages which called as germination stage, development and internationalization stages. Intellectual property, possibly a current phenomenon and perhaps too narrative to some, nevertheless has portrayed western economics, multi national co-operations and supported western economic colonization. As discussed previously, IPR was and still is a controversial subject. While Europe may have fared fairly well in comparison with the US, problems are rising in the EU as well. From an economic perspective, there is a need for harmonizing European administrative and legal practices in the area of IPRs while increasing the quality standards used in these system. Moreover, a new balance between the owners of rights and users of the protected subject matter needs to be found in many fields. With its Lisbon Agenda, the European Union has nurtured a future vision of a region concentrating on learning and innovation so as to sustain high levels of productivity and wealth. To attain these objectives, EU policies will need to promote innovation and encourage investments in new and more competent products, processes and organizational routines. Intellectual property plays an important part in this vision, and in several areas, the EU has embarked on a course meant to reinforce rights that foster innovation. Examples of some controversies in Europe involve the arguments on copyright and Digital Rights Management (DRM) systems, on the protection of computer software through patents and/or copyright, and the degree of patent protection for biotechnological inventions. In many jurisdictions, the rights of IPR owners have been reinforced as compared to the rights of other parties. Wholly new IPRs (such as for database protection) have been formulated. These amendments have brought about a number of policy issues. Patent systems are under strain not just in Europe, but in other countries as well. Like in the US, both patent submissions and patent grants at the EPO have increased much faster than Research and Development (RD) inputs in OECD countries. From 1990 to 2000, EPO patent applications rose from 70,955 to 145,241 (an average growth rate of 7.4 per cent per annum) while OECD RD inputs grew from $398 to $555 billion which reveals an average annual growth of 3.4 per cent. As for the actual grant rate (the share of patent applications leading to a patent grant) remained almost stable at about 65 percent for patents with application years from 1978 to 1995. There are three major obstacles to the future design of European IPR policies, the first being harmonization. If the EU wants to become a region focusing on innovation without being bothered by national barriers, there is definitely a need for coming up with truly European IPR policies and institutions. That comprises of harmonized interpretation of IPR laws, harmonized court proceedings and the setting up of legal institutions which resolve cases that have been very much controversial. A second significant criterion is the focus on balance. The naive belief that more and stronger IPRs are always excellent for innovation has been contested by scientists in empirical and theoretical work over the last decades. Balance in copyrights means that fair use of rights of consumers have to be considered seriously. Third, IPRs that are granted on the basis of an examination process should be of high quality in the sense that they create legal certainty, rather than uncertainty. European institutions, in particular the European Patent Office, should seek to grant high-quality patent rights which are based on tough standards for novelty and inventive step. Despite a complete array of rules on the protection of intellectual property, counterfeiting and piracy have continued to rise in the world because offenders have the possibility of making considerable profits without risking any serious legal consequences. In July 2005, the Commission presented a double proposal for a  directive   and a  Council framework decision     aimed at introducing criminal sanctions for IPR infringements.  The general penalty is for the court to grant damages to the patent owner, requiring the offender to pay a certain amount of money to the patent owner.   IPR IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Countries vary to a great extent concerning the protection and enforcement of IPR, with developing countries being normally associated with much lower standards for IPR protection than developed countries. This amount does not take into consideration any imitation of products manufactured and consumed in the same country or counterfeit digital products sold over the Internet. Some of the theoretical literature considers a stylized world with a technologically developed North and a less technologically developed South. These models are based on the premise set forth in Chin and Grossman (1988) where the North innovates and the South imitates the Northern technologies. The main finding of Chin and Grossman (1988) was that a persistent tension exists between the North and the South-while the North innovates, the South chooses low levels of IPR protection because it benefits from the innovative output of the North. The debate for the implementation of appropriate intellectual property rights in the developed countries is fueled since the advanced countries faced a menace to their pioneering technological and non- technological innovations and their commercialization in the developing nations. Subsequently, developing countries have long been demanded by developed nations to implement intellectual property rights. The central apprehension by the developed nations is to protect the innovations in the less developed nations from the illegal counterfeiting and copying. The discussion between both parties, that is, industrialized countries and developing countries is getting intense since the last two decades. The developing countries are parted over the debate due to their economic conditions, FDI and technological sophistication. The concern for the developing countries is the eventual economic repercussions for the implementation of such intellectual property rights in their respective countries. The case can be even harsher for the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), where intellectual property rights are seen as the origin for the high technology cost and barriers for technology access to public. On the other hand however, increased technology transfer with foreign direct investment may somehow validate such regime. But such profitable offers as substitute for IPR in the developing nations, according to some developing countries, are in view of the developed countries benefits and they would be unable to heighten the economic conditions in the developing countries from their present conditions. The social benefits obtained from certain economic systems, established in the advanced nations may not affect the social systems of the developing nations as wished for. So far, different measures, particularly led by the United States have actually compelled the implementation for the intellectual property rights in the developing countries, exclusively backed by the strong business communities in the United States. REGULATORY BODIES There is a need for IPR because, without them, a piece of potentially important information would be subject to overuse, to the point that access to it is not costly, from the perspective of its development and expansion. This use would quickly exhaust the economic worth of the information, limiting incentives to produce it. The contrast between the mounting need for international exploitation of intellectual assets and the territorial (and often underdeveloped) nature of rights to do so resulted in huge pressures for general change in recent years. These pressures triggered broad bilateral, regional, and multilateral negotiations on IPRs, which engendered a significant expansion of required minimum standards, especially in developing economies and countries in transition. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is an international organization set up to ensure that the rights of creators and owners of intellectual property are respected throughout the world and that inventors and authors are thus recognized and rewarded for their ingenuity. As a specialized organization of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to create and synchronize rules and practices to protect intellectual property rights. Most advanced nations have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and developing countries, however, are now building up their patent, trademark and copyright laws and systems. With the rapid globalization of trade during the last decade, WIPO plays an important role in helping these new systems progress through treaty negotiation, legal and technical assistance, and training in various forms, including in the area of strengthening of intellectual property rights. WIPO also caters for international registrati on systems for patents, trademarks, appellations of origin and industrial designs. These hugely simplify the process for concurrently seeking intellectual property protection in a lot of countries. Instead of having to file national applications in different languages, these systems allow applicants to file a single application, in one language, and to pay a single application fee. In the 1990s the world has shifted radically toward an international system of IPRs. Apprehensions about the piracy and forgery of intellectual property have been increasingly raised in developed countries, where much of the intellectual property is located. As a solution to these concerns, the protection of intellectual property was a major area of negotiation at the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The result of the negotiations was the founding of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to govern the GATT, the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The TRIPS Agreement is an integral and legally binding part of the WTO that requires all member countries (142 countries as of July 2001) to 12 grant patents for inventions in all fields of technology. It requires them to protect plant varieties either by patents, by an effective sui generis system or by a combination of both. Adherence to the TRIPS agreement for most, if not all member countries, means introducing more severe intellectual property protection (IPP). This is expected to have extensive consequences on the international transfer of technology and trade relationship between the developed and developing countries, especially in agricultural research. Finally, in respect to the large and costly institutional and legal changes these provisions need in countries with restricted IPR systems, transition periods are granted. General obligations (national treatment and MFN) were to be operational immediately upon the implementation of the WTO. Developing countries and countries in transition should meet the detailed obligations within five years (that is, by January 1, 2000) and least-developed countries must meet them within eleven years (by January 1, 2006). The latter countries may, upon request to the TRIPS Council, be given extensions for an unspecified period, signifying that they have been given an opt-out procedure. Countries are free to accelerate their adherence to TRIPS. The TRIPS Agreement leads in a new global framework for IPRs. It clearly built up minimum standards for protection, moving the system closer to harmonization, and inclines the balance of economic rewards toward innovative interests and away from counterfeiting and imitation. The TRIPS Agreement provides minimum national standards for levels of protection to the creators of intellectual property. Article 27.1 of this Agreement requires members to provide for patents for all inventions, whether products or processes, in all fields of technology. BENEFIT OR DETRIMENT FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES? The net economic effect on developing nations from establishing and protecting IPR is not completely obvious. Some have insisted that strengthening IPR protection will improve economic growth and wellbeing in developing nations, and others argue that it will be unfavorable, thereby diminishing overall welfare. Among the possible costs of this type of policy are decreased incomes in industries that depend on copying the products of industrialized nations and the related increases in the prices of protected commodities. For example, increasing IPR protection in the less-developed countries can promote innovation in there. Certainly there are certain short-term costs linked with intellectual property rights for the developing nations, like higher prices for the technology and protected goods. Given this, the case for tighter intellectual property rights in these countries must rely on long term benefits like superior technology or foreign direct investment inflows and bigger incentive to national innovation. FDI inflows in a country come mostly in the form of Multinational Corporations (MCs). MCs are able to stay really competitive when they are successful in transferring IP and other intangible assets to their global locations of operations. These sources of competitive advantage can be anything from a proprietary manufacturing plan for semiconductors to a cleaning solvent formula. But before taking any decision to set up any assets in a country, multinational managerial committees should analyze whether the country where they are going to transfer their technology has appropriate IPR to protect the organization against offenders and imitators. Studying the impact of more rigid IPR protection in a less technologically developed South (developing countries) on welfare in both the North (developed countries) and the South, Diwan and Rodrik (1991) found that net-innovation consuming countries (the South) were only motivated to safeguard IPR if the type of innovation demanded was different from the type demanded in the net-innovation-producing countries (the North). Evenson (1992) refers to these middle-income countries as being in the technology draught, because they tend to focus RD efforts on adaptation, imitation, and reverse engineering. As economies become more innovative at the uppermost levels of income, patent protection tends to increase dramatically. According to World Bank Global Economic Perspective, there are certain particular reasons for advanced countries, and interestingly for the developing nations to follow the TRIPS agreement, that is, it may offer developing countries improved access to agricultural and apparel markets in prosperous nations, an expectation that tighter IPR would also promote further technology transfer and innovation. However, according to World Bank, the guarantee for durable benefits seems doubtful and costly to accomplish in many countries, especially the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Moreover, the administrative costs and tribulations with higher prices for medicines and crucial technological inputs loom large in the minds of policy makers in developing nations. Many are favoring considerable provisions in the agreement. Some developing countries also applied for the provisions in implementation for the patent protection, particularly in pharmaceutical industry. In developing countries, the lack of international IPR protection has helped in creating massive employment. India is one of the leaders in reproducing medicines and drugs manufactured by foreign companies. The reason it can do so is because Indias patent act forbids product patents for any invention intended for use or capable of being used as a food, medicine, or drug or relating to substances prepared or produced by chemical processes. This in return has negative effects on the international pharmaceutical industry. The US pharmaceutical industry is estimated to incur annual losses of $450 million due to imitation. It would prove to be very costly for these countries to adopt the IPR laws overnight in its totality. This would mean loss of job for many; inadequate access to medicines and drugs for needy people and all these could eventually lead to social unrest. Countries with weak IPR protection are well positioned to gain an immediate benefit to lower-priced goods or technologies. Countries with lack of strong IPR protection must therefore compare these benefits with the loss of international willingness to invest resources or develop products, as well as lessened innovative commodities within the country. Maskus (2000) notes three potential costs namely: 1. Higher prices for imported products and new technologies under IPR protection 2. Loss of economic activity, by the closure of imitative activities. 3. The possible abuse of protection by the patent holders, especially large foreign companies. Some countries have accepted to adhere to TRIPS in order to benefit from concessions in other (non-technological) fields of economic activity, such as more aid, freer and greater access to developed country markets for key exports and so on. Whether they really benefited in these ways stays an open question, since neither the costs nor the benefits of TRIPS associated concessions have been appropriately calculated. Nonetheless such implementation would also fuel the local innovation in the developing nations, permitting them to import the foreign technologies and have hands-on experience in learning and using the technologies. In addition, the strength and efficiency of enforcement efforts also differ with economic development stages. This reveals both a reluctance to bear the expensive administrative expenses related with enforcement and the incapacity to handle many of the complex technical and judicial matters linked with the use and infringement of IPRs. However, there is an essential tradeoff between the market power caused by stronger IPRs, which are likely to improve the ability of firms to fragment markets and limit trade, and the market-expansion impact of increasing the costs of counterfeit activity. Detractors of the TRIPs Agreement claim that the step towards more rigid IPR may harm poor

All Grown Up and No Place to Go Teenagers in Crisis

Child and adolescent development specialist David Elkind contends that today's teenager’s are struggling as the result of a shift in society to a â€Å"postmodern† period. In this period, â€Å"the needs of children and youth are often weighted less heavily than are the needs of parents and the rest of adult society† ( xiii ). Elkind believes that, as a result, â€Å"we as a society have abrogated our responsibility to young people† (xiv).Elkind explains how, in this postmodern period, adults mistakenly treat teenagers as though they were already competent and sophisticated, and therefore do not guide them from childhood into adulthood, as youth were guided in previous generations. His words sound a clear warning to teachers and other adults who tend to confuse teenager’s' physical maturity with emotional, psychological, social, intellectual, and spiritual maturity. A useful feature is his discussion of how the â€Å"growth markers† that were formerly available to guide children into adolescence and teens into adulthood are now absent.Examples include girls of all ages now being encouraged to wear makeup and sophisticated clothes, and boys of all ages being encouraged to participate in high-stakes competitive sports teams. Teen’s perception of stereotypes varies from person to person. It is interesting to know that how teens identify groups and how they decide to associate themselves with particular ones, at a time in their lives when age-mates take on a greater significance and the influence of adults diminishes.Teachers should not ignore or underestimate the power of peer influence; although we commonly think of this influence in negative terms, this article helps us recognize that peer influence can be a positive contributor to teenager’s' classroom behavior, too. The role of environment in determining behavior is considered, much greater by the intellectual descendants of Locke. More than adherents of other schools, they see humans as substantially malleable; they are convinced that children's behavior responds to the expectations expressed for it.Thus, if we believe that teenagers will be moody and rude, our children are likely to comply; if we relegate them to a social holding pattern, they will adopt the general characteristics of powerlessness. The discipline of child psychology, as well as the children it studies, is influenced by cultural assumptions seems beyond doubt. But then, what is to be made of these conflicting views about the plasticity of development? It would hardly be feasible to attempt a grand synthesis of these positions. David Elkind, a longtime observer and scholar of child development and family life, sees in the modern family a â€Å"permeable† family.He discerns in the seeming imbalances and morbidities of postmodern families the stresses hammering at children and youth in the contemporary society and a new family form emerging, a form that is bas ed on values and sentiments that prepare its members to cope with this stunning array of pressures. Three sentiments and their resulting practices are particularly heartening from his point of view. To be sure, by the teenage years, parents must exercise most of their authority by stating acceptable alternatives and sticking to them, even if that means throwing a child out of the house.In a sense, then, we are no longer talking about the kind of parental control liberationists object to, but more subtle pressures generally compatible with their stand except insofar as they think teens have a right to financial support no matter what their behavior. Teens might also insist that drinking or doing drugs should be their own choice, just as it is for adults. But the reverberations both for themselves and for those about them suggest the desirability of pressing them to limit such activities in a way that might not be appropriate for adults.David Elkind has warned against pushing children too fast in an age-inappropriate manner. Latency-age children bear much of the burden of a faster-paced society. Adults are spending more time at work than ever before; children are shuffled between activities in part due to their parents' schedules. Children's time outside of school has become more structured; they participate in extracurricular pursuits at earlier ages. Doing nothing, as in â€Å"those lazy, hazy days of summer,† previously part of the culture of a child, is no longer promoted or valued. Some children no longer just go out to play, they have â€Å"play dates.† They are infrequently left free to explore what they would do if there were nothing to do. There is no time for daydreaming. Television and computers have replaced quieter moments. Rarely do you hear a child say, â€Å"Turn off the television. I want to read now. † In this speeded-up society, adults are resigned to Elkind's concerns; there is no turning back for today's children. Parent s may rationalize and say it is a good learning experience for an eight-year-old to be home alone. Elkind's recommendation is that given the stress imposed on them, children should be taught skills to help them cope effectively with what is expected of them.For example, the â€Å"latchkey† child should be offered assistance such as phone numbers for reaching a parent, the police, and a neighbor, and instructions on what to do in case of fire. Rituals and routines are important components in the structure of the middle childhood years. As children begin to organize and classify their knowledge, they come to depend on routines to help them consciously and unconsciously deal with new issues and experiences. Birthdays, secular and religious rituals, and common developmental milestones all help them to find their place in the world.They are seeking to be connected to the larger society through attachments in school, with their peers, with their teachers, in social activities, and in their families. Ironically, because teenager’s are continually redefining their thinking about self and their own value systems, they are highly vulnerable to believing in media myths. As such, outside-in problems manufactured by the media through the power of suggestion and constant repetition become teenager’s' inside-out personal problems In short, adolescence is the stage in life when children begin to question their own thinking in light of what others think of them as well as for them.In this regard, teenager’s' sense of thinking is not wholly independent of their social sense of self. Although as parents, researchers, and teachers, we may be aware of the variable nature of the teenager’s' thinking self, we may not realize that adolescence is a relatively new stage in human development. In colonial America, teenager’s served as a source of cheap labor. With the advent of modern industrialization, longer periods of schooling have been requi red to prepare children for the workplace. This, in turn, has extended the time that children are economically dependent on their parents.As children enter the teenage culture, they are drawn away from their parents and into peer groups. In the process, teenager’s' developing social sense of self is placed into a tug of war between the norms and pressures of parents and friends. Adolescence in America is the psychological equivalent of toddlerhood. Just as toddlers move away from their parents physically, so teenager’s move away from their parents emotionally There are continuous negotiations between parents and children about distance. Children want to explore and parents want to keep them safe.And both toddlers and teenagers are outraged when their parents don't agree with them about the ideal balance of freedom and security. As teenager’s turn to their peers for validation and support, they often engage in intense experimentation, exploring a wide range of po ssibilities that often contradict parents' cherished beliefs in behavioral norms. In the process, teenagers may become the biggest enforcers and proselytizers for their own peer culture: Teenagers may punish other teenagers for failing to achieve the same impossible goals that they themselves are unable to obtain.Moreover, they may rush to set standards to ward off the imposition of others' standards on them. All the while, the content of the standards may remain variable often depending on what standards the media is marketing at a given time, from baggy pants and body piercing to tattoos and the latest neon hair styles. Teenager’s' social sense of self invariably leads to contradictions, as does their thinking sense of self. Social self-contradictions arise from teenager’s' membership in multiple groups that maintain different expectations and norms.More importantly, contradictions continually arise as teenager’s switch their loyalties from one peer group to t he next, giving rise to competing allegiances. In sum, teenager’s experience contradictions inside-out in terms of their thinking sense of self as well as outside in terms of their social sense of self. In many instances, the frustrations of these contradictions are further exacerbated by the academic sense of self that schools promote. One of the most visibly striking transformations during adolescence occurs as a girl's body changes in size and shape.Girls tend to appear rounder as their hips widen, and fat develops in the breasts, thighs, and buttocks. As these changes occur, culture tells girls that thinness is beautiful, even imperative. Not surprisingly, it is also during this period that girls become increasingly concerned with their bodies. Girls' changing bodies provide powerful stimuli to the self and others. A pertinent issue during early adolescence is that bodily changes bring about a sense of fragmentation in body image. Thus, the body is frequently depicted as a collection of individual parts, such as breasts and hips.So, for example, many girls this age worry about the size of their breasts. In the United States, bigger is generally considered better, yet not from girls' perspectives. Rather others are believed to hold that value. Because the body is often times viewed as a reflection of the self, the eroticization processes through which the body is transformed into a sexual object become a major source of conflict for many teenager girls. Teenager girls continue to suffer in multiple ways as a result of these complex social processes.Meanwhile the psychologists and psychiatrists who have historically led the study of what is known as â€Å"body image† have done so in ways that limit knowledge and understanding of girls, further contributing to the structures supporting domination and oppression of females. That is, these researchers have almost exclusively studied â€Å"body image† through quantitative measures that assum e objectivity. In the process, they have conveniently and openly ignored and dismissed contributions from social scientists and feminists who have studied the body from alternative and more hopeful perspectivesNevertheless, body image work has become influential, creating at least three problems. First, the historical study of â€Å"body image† has contributed to the objectification of the body. Second, â€Å"body image† researchers have created a logic of pathology to explain girls' problems Result of irresponsible sexual activity is substantial teenage motherhood. Yet the consequences of early childbearing are extremely damaging. Pregnancy doubles the risk that a girl will drop out of school; most such girls never return, regardless of their financial situation or ethnic background.Once the child is born, the girl is unlikely to be in a position to earn more than welfare would offer her and she has the responsibility of a child to boot. But if she chooses to go on we lfare, her sense of agency and independence is seriously damaged. If she marries instead, she is not only unlikely to finish her schooling but also faces a significantly higher probability of divorce than a woman who waits until her twenties to marry. Thus girls who engage in unprotected sex and who elect to keep their babies are at serious risk of a worse life than they could otherwise have expected.â€Å"But the damage does not stop there. The plight of their children is painful. Neither parent may take responsibility: they may be ignored by their fathers and handed to some female relative by their mothers. For the child, this may be a blessing in disguise, as the most irresponsible teens are those least likely to possess the qualities required for good childrearing. As these babies get older, however, they show the effects of their unfavorable environment. Children of teen mothers score worse on ability tests, get worse grades, and expect less in the way of education than childr en of older women.They also get less education, marry earlier, and divorce more often†. (p. 133) David Elkind questions the popular conception of parental authority Exerting parental authority doesn't mean that we can't play ball with our children or joke with them or have fun with them. Being a parent doesn't mean being an ogre or a relentless disciplinarian. Rather it means asserting ourselves as adults who have more experience, knowledge, and skill than our offspring. Children and teenagers are young and inexperienced. They very much need and want guidance and instruction from us. (205)At least three areas of concern arise from the literature about violence on television. The obvious ones are the relationship between television violence and aggression, even if the aggression is not directed against society, and the desensitization of children to pain and suffering. The less obvious one is the potential for children who are sensitive and vulnerable to become more fearful and insecure upon exposure to violence on television. â€Å"Television has brought murder into the home, where it belongs† (Elkind, p. 103). Murders and crime occur about ten times more frequently on television than in the real world.A third of all characters in television shows are committing crime or fighting it, most with guns. It becomes, therefore, a chicken-and-egg question. When one examines violence in films the trend towards increased gore and explicit horror is easily documented. Rather than reflecting the content and meaning associated with myths and fairy tales, horror films today are pure sensation with little serious content. If violence on television is controlled, children and adults will still be able to experience violence vicariously through other media such as films, books, and recordings.The contemporary challenges that have created this increase in stress among today's teenager’s, in Elkind's terms — the â€Å"perils of puberty,†  "peer shock,† and â€Å"family permutations†. Authentic parenting is an outgrowth of shared parenting but integrates unilateral and mutual authority depending on the concern at hand and the developmental stage of the child. But it is also leavened by a realization that each parent can perform their roles in ways that are true to their own temperaments, personalities, and experience. Finally, there is an emergent relationship between community and family.How well a family does is seen as partly dependent upon the ties it has with the community and the resources and assets available in the community. Community service has become a part of the required curriculum in many schools. Other neighborhoods are reaching out to isolated families or individuals and families in trouble. Some schools have become â€Å"lighted schoolsâ€Å"—twenty-four-hour family resource centers providing programs, services, and opportunities for connections to others. According to Elkind, i nterdependence is a central value and sentiment that underlies this emerging family form.â€Å"Interdependence is founded upon a sense of being both one and many, of being different from everyone else and like them at the same time† (p. 220). Traces of his longing for the modern family aside, Elkind's thesis about the new family embodies some of what we know about family resilience to this point. And it can apply in spirit to all families and caretaking relationships. It is important, as a starting point, to realize that every family, even those in the midst of gripping disorganization and bewildering turmoil, has strengths and capacities.Every angry, demanding parent has moments of caring; every confused teenagers has moments of hope and clarity; every abusive father has a twinge of doubt or regret. At some time in every family's life there have been periods of relative calm and stability. Every family has overcome hurdles, some more successfully than others. All of these ar e resources to be drawn upon, by the family members themselves or by someone who would deign to be of help to them. Works Cited Elkind David. ( 1998). All Grown Up and No Place to Go: Teenagers in Crisis. Rev. ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Sociology and Durkheim Social Disorganization

SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION AND IT’S TYPES: DEFINITION OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION: Social Disorganization theory began around the late 1800s. Social Disorganization refers to organizations and institutions failing in communities or neighborhoods, preventing these areas from overcoming the crime and issues of the day. The social disorganization theory is a key component in the study of criminology. Theories under the umbrella of social disorganization seek to identify and predict trends in criminal or deviant behavior among groups within a social network.The effort is designed to address criminal activity and the variables that might predict undesired behavior within a community. According to Elliott and Merrill: â€Å"Social disorganization are the totality of human personalities and conscious and unconscious attitudes, their crystallized and uncrystallized ideas and institutions which in complex interrelationships make up the framework of human existences. Social organization refe rs to the way people relate themselves to one another. It also refers to the way in which person and groups making up a society are somehow held together.  Read also  Sociology and Social Integration.Social organization and social structure are interchangeable concepts both referring to any interrelated system of role and statuses. † Ogburn and Nimkoff said that: â€Å"When the harmonious relationship between the various parts of culture is disturbed, social disorganization ensues. Social disorganization implies some breakdown in the organization of society. It is a relative phenomenon. Social organization and social disorganization is the dual aspects of the whole functioning of society. The social disorganization theory attributes crime and delinquency to communities where failing communal institutions, such as family, church, local government and schools, are found. According to this theory, communal relationships reinforce positive behavior, a sense of community respo nsibility and concern for the social network within a close area. When these communal relationships are faulty or nonexistent, that social network loses a sense of organization and social responsibility, which can potentially lead to negative or even criminal behavior spreading through that neighborhood.Types of Social Disorganization: Types of social disorganization are as follow: 1. Individual disorganization 2. Family disorganization 3. Community disorganization Social disorganization is the theory that crime and dysfunctional behavior occur in societies for cultural, political and economic reasons. Established communities experience increases in crime when their way of life and the established order of how things are done changes. Generally, social disorganization is caused by lack of personal control, community control and public control.Cultural Social Disorganization: †¢Cultural social disorganization emphasizes that disorganization occurs through the failure of people t o keep up with the times. When housing, means of transport and methods of communication rapidly change in a society, beliefs, attitudes and habits do not change as quickly. Authority figures resist change and find it difficult to integrate the new circumstances into their lives. This lag can result in social disorganization and increased crime rates. Political Social Disorganization: When a country or neighborhood has a large influx of new populations, such as immigrants, or are dealing with social upheavals or wars, political corruption can threaten the stability of a society. Political social disorganization also occurs when a country becomes subordinate to another country. The subordinate country loses its ability to govern itself and develop its own institutions, leading to subsequent loss of societal values, which can result in more crime in the society. Crime rates are less prevalent in stable communities. Economic Social Disorganzation: †¢Social and natural crises can gi ve rise to economic social disorganization.Famines, floods, epidemics and other natural disasters can disrupt social balances. Disparity between desires and the money to attain those goals can also affect the rise of crime. Illegitimate means will be used when legal ways to acquire them are not available. Unfair division of labor and physical deterioration of neighborhoods were also found to result in social disorganization. Some sociologist believe that the introduction of commerce and high levels of industrialization lead to higher crime rates. With the demise of traditional norms of behavior, new forms of behavior — whether productive or not — are likely to increase.INDIVIDUAL: 1. Individual difficulties such as physical, social, mental handicaps which may or may not lead to social disorganization. 2. Certain handicaps as a result of which the individual becomes habituated to some social vice. This ultimately affects his life organization as well as others in the co mmunity bringing social disorganization in the society. 3. Biological and physical factors which without proper control through modern technology creates problem of mass disorganization. 4. Decay in the existing institutions whether educational, religious, recreational, family, etc which ultimately affects the community. . Change in values and conflicts in role due to the rapid spread of technology, industrialization, urbanization and mass communication creating problems of national disorganization. When a number of individuals suffer from a similar type of disorganization, a social problem is in existence. In other word, individual disorganization, social problem, and social disorganization are closely interrelated to each other. Here individual disorganization may arises because of various factors such as biological, environmental, loss of security crisis in life, there can be two possibilities: 1.Individual disorganization may grow independent of social disorganization. For insta nce, if a person has ill health or is unable to meet his social demands it may leads to his physical or nervous breakdown and upset his personal plans and life schemes. 2. Suppose an individual is a leader or occupies a strategic position in society, which is often the case, then any disorganization in him leads to social disorganization if not checked. Each such disorganized such individual affects other individuals and in so doing produces social disorganization.According to Elliott and Merrill all type of personal maladjustment represent in one way or another, the inability of the individual to achieve a satisfactory life organization from the point of view of the social definition of his social patterns. 1. The behavior of the disorganized person deviates from the culturally approved norms. 2. His behavior arouses social disapproval which may vary from mild to marked (and even violence one. ) 3. The disorganized person may respond to social disapproval in two ways, i. e. positiv ely or negatively. Individual and Society: Social disorganization in a simple society:The social change, social disorganization and personal disorganization have their genesis in the variant behavior of the individuals. In simple societies, however deviations in behavior is minimum. Therefore there is a little awareness of their existence by the group. New coordination is made both for the society and for the individual with a minimum of stress and strain. Social disorganization in a complex society: The functioning of three important factors is commonly held responsible for spontaneous variations in behavior. They are – the specialized functioning inherent in complex society.The family as a culture defining agency and cultural participation outside the particular social order. The result is the emergence of a wide variety of various response patterns out of which develops disorganization both in society and individual. Some innovations find ready acceptance because they are related to those aspect of culture which are found outside institutional pattern. Innovations in mores, ideas and beliefs often meet with social disapproval because they vary from the accepted pattern. In simple society people revamp the discordant elements to the degree that their variance is no longer apparent.Innovations which meet with organized resistance tend to result in marked social disorganization. All positive response to social disapproval does not result in attempts to explain the variant behavior in terms of the welfare of the group. Social disorganization is the inevitable result until such time as the new behavior pattern loses group support or becomes incorporated into the social order. When however social disapproval of variations is met negatively by retreat into a world of fantasy there is no corresponding social disorganization except to the extent to which the individual becomes a threat to the safety of society and its members.This point of view does not deny the causative role of social organization in the production of personal disorganization. All social change involves some social disorganization. It is important to think of social disorganization related to those aspects of social change which result in the disturbance and revamping of social institutions and of the patterns of interrelationship between them. In the same way the social responses of the individual are always in flux. But only when changes take place in the individual's pattern of adjustment to social situations which arouse social disapproval that one may speak of personal disorganization.Personal disorganization represents the behavior of the individual which deviates from the social norms. It results in social disapproval which may express itself in a wide variety of degree. The individual may also react in different ways. Social reality presents an endless confusion of social disapproval from time to time. It may be mild or violent. Accordingly individuals respond either positively or negatively to social disapproval. The most visible aspect of personal disorganization in complex societies is that in which there is mild social disapproval to which the individual responds positively.This kind of personal disorganization does not deeply disturb the social order. The second aspect of social disorganization is that in which there is violent social disapproval and yet the individual responds positively. In the third aspect in which the individual's response to social disapproval is subjective the person retreats into an individually defined inner world. His innovations lose their social character. He becomes enmeshed in the development of mechanisms which further isolate him from the normal influences of group life.This type of personal disorganization results in psychosis through which the individual tries to escape from the web of social relations and in suicide. Social disorganization consists of the co-ordination of individual responses as a result of the operation of consensus and control. Personal organization refers to the coordination and integration of the attitude systems within the personality. A change in the cultural context which destroys the functioning of coordination that constitutes the social order represents social disorganization.Similarly any variant behavior which disturbs the integration of the attitude systems within the personality represents personal disorganization. Social disorganization is the inevitable result until such time as the new behavior pattern loses group support or becomes incorporated into the social order. When however social disapproval of variations is met negatively by retreat into a world of fantasy there is no corresponding social disorganization except to the extent to which the individual becomes a threat to the safety of society and its members. This point of view does not deny the causative ole of social organization in the production of personal disorganization. All soci al change involves some social disorganization. It is important to think of social disorganization related to those aspects of social change which result in the disturbance and revamping of social institutions and of the patterns of interrelationship between them. In the same way the social responses of the individual are always in flux. But only when changes take place in the individual's pattern of adjustment to social situations which arouse social disapproval that one may speak of personal disorganization.Depression and Disorganization: There are many medical conditions that can contribute to a disorganized and chaotic life. The most common is depression. A depressed person is usually apathetic, lethargic, disinterested, and this can lead to disorganization. Mental Disorder: Other mental problems such as bipolar disorder, dementia, and schizophrenia are all included under the mental umbrella that can cause a chaotic life. Besides depression and mental disorders, grief and pain c an also lead to mounds of clutter. Emotional Clutter and Disorganization:Another reason why people suffer from disorganization is because their emotional and social lives are cluttered. The psychological feeling of being overwhelmed can lead to a disorganized life. In these cases time management and acknowledging priorities are two possible cures for eliminating disorganization. ADD and Disorganization: Attention deficit disorder plays a huge factor in a person's ability to get organized. People who have problems with organization and planning should be checked for ADD disorder. Organization and planning are two of the biggest challenges for those suffering from attention deficit disorder.Unfortunately, standard organizing practices normally don't work for those with ADD and specialized strategies must be developed so that a person can get their life in order. Misconceptions: Most people attempt to solve disorganization by purchasing products and tools, but the Institute of Living, located in Hartford, Conn. , says this may not work. According to the Institute of Living, disorganization is commonly not a house problem that can be solved with buying bins, organizers, hangers and other household accessories, but rather a personal problem that can only be solved when the individual fundamentally changes his behavior.Causes of Social Disorganization: According to Maclver and Page five main factors such as psychological, biological, physical, technological and culture bring about social change. When the changes brought about these factors in the social structure are so disturbing that the present institution and other means of social control are no longer able to control them by adjusting themselves to the new situations there arise social disorganization. Factors of social disorganization at a particular period are so interrelated that it is difficult to find which factor is predominant.Elliott and Merrill observe that in order to understand the full implications of a study of social disorganization we must keep in mind the complex nature of all social phenomena. Out of man's fruitless search for unique causes has come recognition of the multiple factors which account for such characteristics of modern society as the decline in the acceptance of revealed religion the changing structure of the family, the increasing importance of the central government, and the lowering standards of morality. Others would rely on a reconstructuction of the fundamental economic institutions to bring about the changes.Still another group insists that the basis of all human woe lies in the biological field. Each of these groups however ignore the selective nature of the interpretation while on the other hand any realistic social understanding must consider all the factors related to the particular manifestation of social disorganization which is under investigation. Elliott and Merrill has described the four main causes for the disorganization- †¢The social processes under the three main heads-cultural, political and economic †¢Cultural lag Conflicting attitudes and values †¢Social crises Social disorganization is mainly due to cultural degeneration of values in various spheres such as art, science, philosophy, religion, law and politics. According to Karl Mannheim unplanned capitalism and policy of laissez faire are responsible for social disintegration in the present age which Bertrand Russell observes that â€Å"the lack of adjustment in institutions based on authority in the past is responsible for the present social disorganization. † G.R Medan has listed a few factors responsible for disorganization. †¢Psychological factors:- The cause of social disorganization is to be found in the human psychology itself. Psychological factors contribute to disorganization in two ways:- (a)Failure to maintain proper communication among fellow beings. (b)Failure to modify or change one's attitudes in tune with demands of t ime. †¢Cultural lag:- Cultural lag is the concept used by W. E. Ogburn refers to the imbalance in the rate and speed of change between the material cultural and non-material culture.Objects of material culture such as mode of housing, means of transport and communication, types of dresses, patterns of ornaments, technical and mechanical devices, instruments change very quickly. But ideas, beliefs, attitudes, taste, philosophies, habits, ideologies, institutional structures and such other aspects of non-material culture change slowly and gradually. Hence a gap or a lag arises between the material and non-material culture. This lag referred to as cultural lag invites the process of disorganization to set in. †¢Physical or geographic factors:-The adjustment of man and his culture to certain extraordinary physical or geographic conditions or situations may cause disorganization in society. This is especially true in the case of natural calamities such as storms, cyclones, hurr icanes, famines, floods, epidemics etc which upset the social balance and bring in social disorganization. †¢Biological factors:- Population explosion or extreme scarcity of population the instances of racial intermixture, defective hereditary traits and such other biological factors may also cause disorganizing effects upon society. †¢Ecological factor:-Social disorganization is related to environment in terms of regions and neighborhoods. †¢Social problems leading to social disorganization:- Social problems and forces such as a revolution, social upheaval, a class struggle, a financial or economic crisis, a war between nations, mental illness, and political corruption threaten the welfare of the society. †¢Degeneration of values:- Social values are often regarded as the sustaining forces of society. They contribute to the strength and stability of social order. But due to rapid social change new values come up and some of the old values decline.At the same time people are not in a position to reject the old completely and accept the new altogether. Hence conflict between the old and the new is the inevitable result of which leads to the social disorganization. †¢Disintegration and confusion of roles:- Members of society are expected to perform certain definite roles in accordance with their placements in society. Due to profound social changes these expectations also undergo change. Consequently people are confused with regard to their new roles. †¢Political subservience:- Political subordination of a country will result in social disorganization.The subordinate country is not permitted to develop its economy and institutions independently and is made as a means to serve the interest of the dominant country. †¢Conflict of goals and means:- Conflict of goals and means for achieving them may also cause disorganization. Most of the individuals share the dominant goals of the society and act accordingly. But lacking the means f or achieving the goals by legitimate means some may resort to illegitimate and illegal means resulting in vice, crime and other expression of social disorganization. †¢Decline of social control:-The declining control of religion, morals, customs, traditions and other institutions on the behavior of men has also enhanced the process of disorganization. There is an increase in interpersonal conflicts, crimes, tensions, divorce, delinquency, mental derangement etc. According to Thomas and Znaniecki the very decrease of the influence of existing rule of behavior upon the individual members of the group itself indicates social disorganization. †¢Extreme divisions of labor:- According to Durkheim social disorganization is often brought about by extreme division of labour.In normal course according to him division of labor leads to social solidarity may become disturbed. †¢Disruptive social change:- Society undergoes change mainly due to the operation of physical, biological , technological and cultural factors. Sudden and radical social changes may disrupt the stability and the organization of the society. The result is social disorganization. Prevention/Solution: According to the National Study Group on Chronic Disorganization, a person who finds herself continuously surrounded by mess and should seek help and work with a professional organizer who is knowledgeable about disorganization issues.A person who is able to get organized can experience better mental and physical health. Organization places a person in a more productive environment that is conducive to enhancing his quality of life. Conclusion: Disorganization can cause havoc in a person's life. There are multiple reasons that a person can have a disorganized life. In some cases a disruptive life event is to blame for disorganization. Events like relocation, a new baby, or even a loss can all affect the organization of one's environment. Other times an emotional or mental disorder is contribu ting to the disorganization.Disorganization can also be brought on by something as diminutive as a change in mindset. The studies reviewed above indicate that social disorganization is an important predictor of youth violence and crime, and that social disorganization has its impact on youth violence and crime by affecting a number of mediating processes that facilitate youth violence. The findings also indicate that researchers and practitioners need to consider the linkages between economic deprivation and social disorganization when attempting to explain the genesis of youth violence.In attempting to attenuate youth violence, a number of policy implications are suggested by social disorganization theory. REFERENCES: http://www. sociologyguide. com/social-pathology/personal-disorganization. php http://books. google. com. pk/books? id=MXpiJWE7m5cC=PA32=PA32=INDIVIDUAL+DISORGANIZATION+in+india=bl=mLW-FbCxK5=BGnlIeTBCwenAz4t_NtYJykxu5c=en=X=bQJrUZbYLK6P7Ab874HgAw=0CEMQ6AEwAw#v=onepag e=INDIVIDUAL%20DISORGANIZATION%20in%20india=false FAMILY DISORGANIZATION Many marriages don't live up to high expectations, of people and families, so they break down or are violent.Some believe these are exceptional problems, but feminists believe it's because of male/female inequities. Family is the universal social institution, of all the institutions, it is most multifunctional, inspite of the fact that in some societies many of its previous functions have been partially taken over by other institutions. In many societies, including Pakistani society, the family is still the principal agency for social control and for educational, religious, protective, recreative and other institutional functions.Family: Sampson (1986) indicates that social disorganization may have an effect on youth violence through its effects on family structures and stability. He suggested that traditional social disorganization variables may influence community crime rates when taking into account the effe cts of levels of family disruption. This may occur by (1)removing an important set of control structures over youths’ behaviour, and (2)creating greater opportunities for criminal victimization (i. e. , through the lack of capable guardianship).Essentially, Sampson (1986) recognized the relationship of social disorganization theory to control theory and routine activities/lifestyle theory. To test his assertions, Sampson (1986) used three measures of family structure. First, he included a measure of the per cent of residents in a neighbourhood who were ever married and who were either divorced or separated. The second measure of family structure was the per cent of female-headed families. Finally, he included a measure of the per cent of primary or single-headed households.His analyses revealed that, independent of the traditional social disorganization variables, the family structure variables each had a direct significant effect on community crime rates. Thus, Sampsonâ€⠄¢s work identified an important and additional source of social disorganization (implicit in the work of Shaw and McKay) that had been previously overlooked by empirical studies. McNulty and Bellair (2003) also investigated the importance of family processes within the social disorganization tradition.This study integrates theory and research in criminology and urban sociology to specify a contextual model of differences in adolescent violence between whites and five racial-ethnic groups. The model presented views these differences as a function of variation in community contexts, family socioeconomic well-being, and the social capital available to adolescents and families. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Survey (1988 to 1992), which included information on 14,358 adolescents across 2,988 US locales, were matched with community-level data from the 1990 US census to test the resulting model.The white-black disparity in adolescents’ fighting is explained by highe r levels of disadvantage in the communities in which black children often live. The disadvantage index accounted for the largest reduction in the black effect on fighting, reflecting the well-documented concentration of disadvantage in black communities. Importantly, and in agreement with the importance of family processes for social disorganization theory, the results indicate that the effect of concentrated disadvantage on fighting is mediated by more proximate processes that are linked to family well-being.Tolan, Gorman-Smith and Henry (2003) employ data from a longitudinal study of 284 African-American and Latino adolescent boys and their caregivers, living in poor urban communities, to test a developmental-ecological model of violence. Six annual waves of data were applied to evaluate the relations between microsystem influences of parenting and peer deviance, macrosystem influences of community structural characteristics and neighbourhood social organization, and individual in volvement in violence. Structural equation modelling analyses showed that community structural characteristics significantly predicted neighbourhood social processes.Importantly, it was found that parenting practices partially mediated the relation between neighbourhood social processes and gang membership. Consistent with the above research that social disorganization may influence the level of youth violence through its effect on family processes, other researchers have found that family processes may be used to mitigate the deleterious effects of social disorganization. Burfeind (1984), for example, examined the role of the family, within a larger social context, as it relates to delinquency.This study focused on 1,588 non-black junior and senior high school students in the US. Burfeind analyzed the interactive effects of five family dimensions in relation to four other causal variables commonly associated with delinquency involvement: community social disorganization, delinquent friends, attachment to peers, and delinquent definitions. Analysis revealed that family factors influenced delinquency in different ways. The level of an adolescent’s attachment to the father was found to be independently related to delinquent activity after controlling for all other effects (independent and interactive).Paternal discipline had an interactive effect on delinquency, such that the type of paternal discipline influenced the effect that community social disorganization and the number of delinquent friends had on delinquency. Sampson (1992) has attempted to consolidate the empirical findings that relate social disorganization to family processes and then to delinquency and youth violence. In so doing, he has developed a community-level theory of social disorganization, which places primary emphasis on family management practices and child health and development.He notes that the embeddedness of families and children in a community context is a central feature of the theory. Prenatal care, child abuse prevention, monitoring and supervision of youth, and other family management practices are intertwined with community networks of social organization. Social disorganization directly and indirectly influences the care of children and other family processes, and ultimately, rates of delinquency and crime FAMILY DISORGANISATION This describes breakdown, due to functional failure and role failure. Causes and effects of disorganization include: Death, disability or serious illness. †¢Births outside marriage. †¢Divorce, separation, desertion of living in an empty-shell marriage (partners live together but really all over). †¢Conflict, including abuse/neglect. †¢Disruption caused from outside by unemployment, war, imprisonment or persecution. CAUSES OF AN INCREASING DIVORCE RATE †¢Big increase since sixties. One in three in divorce. reasons include: CONSEQUENCES OF AN INCREASING DIVORCE RATE †¢More one parent families, c ohabiting, remarriage, step-parents, and reconstituted families, where both married before and both bring children to the new union. Increased welfare dependence. †¢Disadvantaged children, a subject of debate. †¢Decline in the importance of family IS THE FAMILY IN DECLINE? Arguments predicting decline: †¢It failed, oppressive (Leach), encourages violence (Dobash and Dobash), exploits women (Bernard). Supporters of the nuclear family condemn decline of family values (e. g. Marslands attack on single mothers). †¢Arguments against decline (by functionalist supporters of the family). †¢Divorce is because of higher expectations, so people think more of marriage as an institution. Divorce is the failure of individual marriages, not families in general. †¢Remarriage suggests discontent with a person, not an institution. †¢Serial monogamy (multiple marriages over a lifetime) and reconstituted family are change in structure, not decline in the family itself . †¢Other Views †¢ Marxist: Family changes as capitalism develops but continues to reproduce inequality. Feminist: Family changes but continues to exploit women. You need to be able to tell the difference between family and household, reality and ideal, etnhic and other forms of diversity. DEFINING FAMILIES AND HOUSEHOLDS No agreed definition. Common characteristics are: oliving together oeconomic cooperation oreproduction osocialization of children. †¢A household is a group who live together or share aspects of life eg. eating together. †¢Nuclear families, are parents and immature children. Murdock argues this this is universal. †¢Extended families, add kin. †¢Ideal family, approved model by society. Other types might be frowned upon. Feminists say ideal family been promoted to exploit women. †¢Attitudes and language change. Lone parent families used to be (disapprovingly) unmarried mothers and children.DIFFERENT TYPES OF FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD â₠¬ ¢Includes many one person, childless couples, unmarried with or without children, remarried sometimes with third outside person. †¢Many live in more than one nuclear family throughout life. Most live in variety of family and household arrangements during their lifetimes. IDEOLOGY OF THE FAMILY Ideology is a set of beliefs that forward a particular group, or their interests. Marxists and feminists referred to the ideology of the family. Increasing the pressure to have a happy family. ETHNIC DIVERSITYStudies often by outsiders confirming stereotypes. They do vary according to class, religion and individual factors though. Why are there distinctive patterns of family life? Economic influences – History of slavery may have encouraged female-led afro-Caribbean family. Unemployment may have encouraged persisting extended families. Cultural differences – more likely to persist if a group maintains a distinct language and religion. Discrimination and disadvantage â€⠀œ Racism encourages keeping distinct culture. Westwood and Bhachu (1988), say family is a main strength and resistance.

How far had the British Government abandoned the policy of laissez-faire by 1914 Essay Example

How far had the British Government abandoned the policy of laissez How far had the British Government abandoned the policy of laissez-faire by 1914 Essay How far had the British Government abandoned the policy of laissez-faire by 1914 Essay Essay Topic: Claim of Policy 100 years ago 3/4 of the population in Britain were merely working class, 1/3 were living in severe poverty. Life expectancy was short and infant mortality rates were absurd, in Scotland 13 out of every 100 babies would die before they reached the age of one. The government and many rich, prosperous people believed in Self help not State help, many possessed the saying of heaven helps those who help themselves. Overall, in their opinion it was up to the individuals to look after themselves. Many things contributed to the Government finally realising that Britain was at a stage where state intervention was greatly needed. The colossal divide in social classes in the 1800s to early 1900s resulting in many people falling in to great poverty highlighting the lack of efficiency in the Governments laissez-faire ideology. The findings of Booth and Rowntree lead to a national uproar at the high number of people in Britain living without a decent house and enough money to feed a family for a week. By the year 1914, the British Government had abandoned the policy of laissez-faire to a certain extent. David Lloyd George, or otherwise known as The Father of the Welfare State wanted to enforce state intervention to such an extent that it would provide the country with enough help to create a healthy Britain. His initial plan included a state funded National Health Service (NHS), state funded education, unemployment benefit and a state pension. He called this The Welfare State. So why did the British Government resort to abandoning the policy of laissez-faire? The Boer War of 1899-1902 proved the British National Efficiency to be extremely low. Over half of the applicants who seeked work in the army were rejected simply because they were not fit enough. Many people highlighted the fact that if there were no fit or healthy soldiers then there was no protection for Britain as a country or their colonies. Furthermore, if the British workforce were unhealthy then the trade and exports would decrease because of an insufficient output of goods. In January 1906, the Liberal party won 400 seats in the House of Commons, thereby a majority and gaining power. The Liberals strongly believed in state intervention and with Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman in power till 1908 and thereafter Herbert Henry Asquith, they passed various reforms between 1906-1914, which did in a way remove the old laissez-faire ideology. These liberal reforms targeted many areas of society, but in particular one group that was helped a great deal were the children. Between 1906-1914 the Government passed various policies that would help the growing concern in the deterioration of childrens health and education. In 1906 the School Meals Act was passed, this gave the local councils the opportunity to provide free school meals to children who were in need. However, parents able to afford to pay, were expected to do so. A lot of local authorities failed to undertake this idea, consequently in 1914 the government made the provision of school meals compulsory. In regards to their health, the government passed the 1907 Medical Inspection in Schools Act allowing childrens health to be monitored in school, the dejected reports sent in by doctors thus allowed the local authorities to set up clinics in school in 1912, allowing doctors to regularly check on the health of children. These reforms helped the government to help the people and progress gradually from laissez-faire. However, the cost at times was extortionate- it was easy enough to identify the illnesses but providing the medicine needed was costly. By 1908 various people had recognised that the major causes of poverty were low wages, unemployment or irregular earnings. Others recognised that there was a major damage to health through long working hours and the working conditions, and so after 1908 the government introduced various state intervention policies to help those who were employed to have improved standards and in 1908 the working day for a coal miner was cut to 8 hours, in certain sweated trades the trade board set up boards to control wages and working conditions. On the other boat, help was needed for the unemployed and so in 1911 the National Insurance Act was passed. This was the most radical reform of all and was a major break through in social reform. It worked in two parts; (i) the sickness insurance benefits, which entitled workers to 10s. per week for a period of up to 26 weeks for health reasons and medical treatment for free from a selected doctor. Money to provide this service to workers came from 4d a week from workers, 3d a week from employers and 2d a week from the state. So really the majority of money wasnt being provided by the state! ii) The unemployment benefits- a certain amount of weeks had to be worked before you could receive any benefits, again you could only claim for up to 26 weeks and those cyclical workers e. g. house builders were not covered because it was classed as seasonal work. At this stage the friendly societies, which provided help for the poor, were almost put out of business buy the N. I Acts. Although, these friendly societies did eventually recover to help those workers who were not covered by the governments national insurance policy. The Labour exchanges (or job centres) were also set up to encourage workers to look for work. And so, these acts passed to help the employed and unemployed were another sign of the British Government abandoning their laissez-faire policy and taking a step forward to state intervention. In 1908 the old age pension scheme was set up. This policy was yet again another policy that had been influenced by the ideas and findings of Charles Booth. He, alongside others had stressed the importance in the welfare of the elderly people of Britain for many years. When in 1908 the pensions were made available, they were only given to those over the age of 70 and to whom the government means testers felt were the most deserving. Although this scheme was most definitely state intervention and not laissez-faire it was certainly not generous. It cost the British Government i 8 million to provide for 668000 people, which helped to add to the budget crisis of 1909. it was not as successful as the other schemes introduced in other aspects of society as the budget was too low and the age limit too high in accordance to the lower life expectancy at that time. Hence, by gathering all of the policies and acts above, which targeted all areas and problems in British society at the time, the British Government had abandoned the policy of laissez-faire to a certain extent However, the introduction of a welfare state and state intervention, with the abandonment of laissez-faire has not occurred wholly. A welfare state did not fully exist yet and the system was still showing signs of laissez-faire. There were still various problems that did not allow laissez-faire to be fully abandoned. The liberal reforms did not create a full Welfare State, this was because of various reasons. To start with although the government was providing health insurance for sick workers, it still did not provide the country with a National Health Service. Secondly, the services provided to ill workers and unemployed workers did not cover their family and so left them without any benefit whatsoever. Furthermore, the pension scheme was insufficient and didnt target the majority of elderly people in urgent help. Finally, another major problem was that the unemployment did not cover the bulk of problems raised by those in need. The failure to fully abandon the laissez-faire ideology was also partly because of the mixture of opinions within the House of Commons and also the general public. Many people favoured the Liberal Reforms and the desertion of laissez-faire, for example the Labour Party, the working class and the middle class (who shared mixed views). However, there was also various opposition who were in favour, for obvious reasons of laissez-faire. This opposition was the Conservative Party and the upper class that didnt see a problem with laissez-faire as the problem of poverty and ill health did not really ever involve them, and if it did they could afford the doctors bills. The upper classes were also basically excluded from the liberal reforms because most of the policies introduced did not effect their lifestyle. To conclude, the British Government had only abandoned the laissez-faire policy by 1914 to a certain extent. By 1914, I feel that the Liberals had created a series of stepping-stones and foundations on which they could eventually build up a full welfare state. They had introduced various acts that brought state help along to the children, the elderly, the employed, the unemployed, the sick and the needy. However the state help provided by the British Government did not cover everyone in the country, people were excluded from the benefits (the prosperous) and therefore were still living by the old laissez-faire policy. The acts and policies introduced although bringing along various good points and benefits did come with a variety of problems that needed to be solved along with budget problems. And so, overall the British government still had various problems and issues to resolve before they could fully abandon the laissez-faire policy and take on Lloyd Georges long needed ideological policy of The Welfare State.